Theory
248 terms
Aeolian mode
The natural minor scale, with the pattern W-H-W-W-H-W-W, producing the most common minor tonality in Western music.
Auftakt
The German term for an anacrusis or upbeat — one or more notes that precede the first full measure of a piece.
Dorian mode
A musical mode with the pattern of whole and half steps W-H-W-W-W-H-W, sounding like a natural minor scale with a raised sixth degree.
Dorian mode explained
The second mode of the major scale, characterised by a minor quality with a raised sixth degree
Fach system
The German operatic system for classifying singing voices into detailed categories that match singers with appropriate roles
French sixth
An augmented sixth chord containing four notes, distinguished by an augmented fourth above the bass
German sixth
An augmented sixth chord containing four notes, distinguished by a perfect fifth above the bass
Gesamtkunstwerk concept
Richard Wagner's ideal of a "total work of art" that unifies music, poetry, drama, visual design, and stagecraft into a single, all-encompassing artistic experience.
Ionian mode
The first mode of the major scale, identical to the major scale itself
Italian sixth
The simplest form of augmented sixth chord, containing only three notes: the flattened sixth, the tonic, and the raised fourth scale degree
Locrian mode
The seventh mode of the major scale, built on the seventh degree, characterised by a diminished fifth above the tonic
Lydian mode
A musical mode identical to the major scale but with a raised fourth degree, creating a bright, floating, otherworldly quality.
MIDI
Musical Instrument Digital Interface; a protocol that allows electronic instruments and computers to communicate.
Mixolydian mode
A musical mode identical to the major scale but with a lowered seventh degree, producing a bright but slightly bluesy quality.
Mixolydian mode explained
The fifth mode of the major scale, characterised by a major quality with a lowered seventh degree
Nashville number system
A method of charting music using numbers instead of letter names, enabling instant transposition.
Neapolitan chord
A major triad built on the lowered second scale degree, most often found in first inversion
Neapolitan sixth
The first-inversion form of the Neapolitan chord, which is by far its most common voicing
Phrygian cadence
A type of half cadence in minor keys where the bass descends by half step from iv6 to V, evoking a distinctive archaic quality.
Phrygian mode
The third mode of the major scale, built on the third degree, characterised by a half step between the first and second degrees
Picardy third
A major chord used at the final cadence of a piece otherwise in a minor key
Roman numeral analysis
A system that labels chords by their scale degree using Roman numerals, showing both root and quality
Schenkerian analysis
An analytical method that reduces tonal music to fundamental voice-leading structures called the Ursatz
Wolf tone
An undesirable, wavering resonance that occurs on certain notes of bowed string instruments when the vibrating frequency of the string matches the resonant frequency of the instrument body.
accidental
A sharp, flat, or natural sign that alters a note from the prevailing key signature.
accidentals explained
Symbols placed before notes to raise or lower their pitch by a semitone or return them to their natural state
acoustic
Relating to sound or the properties of sound, especially music produced without electronic amplification.
aleatory
Music in which some element of the composition is left to chance or to the performer's discretion.
alto
The second-highest voice type, or an instrument pitched between soprano and tenor.
amplitude
The measure of a sound wave's intensity, perceived as loudness or volume.
anacrusis
One or more notes before the first full bar of a piece, also called a pickup or upbeat.
anacrusis detail
One or more notes that precede the first full measure of a piece, also called a pickup or upbeat, creating forward momentum into the downbeat.
anticipation
A non-chord tone that arrives early, sounding a note from the next chord before it has officially begun
arpeggio
The notes of a chord played in sequence rather than simultaneously.
asymmetric metre
A time signature that cannot be divided into equal groups of two or three beats, such as 5/4 or 7/8
atonal
Music that lacks a tonal centre or key, treating all twelve chromatic notes as equal.
augmented
A chord or interval that has been raised by a semitone from its major or perfect form.
augmented sixth chord
A chromatic chord built on the flattened sixth scale degree containing an augmented sixth interval
authentic cadence
A harmonic progression from the dominant chord (V) to the tonic chord (I), providing the strongest sense of resolution and finality.
backbeat
Emphasis on beats 2 and 4 in a 4/4 bar, the rhythmic foundation of most popular music.
bar
A segment of music contained between two bar lines, also called a measure.
baritone
A male voice range between tenor and bass.
baritone explained
A male voice type between tenor and bass, typically the most common adult male voice
bass
The lowest male voice type, or the lowest part in a musical composition.
bass clef
The F clef, placing the note F on the fourth line of the staff, used for lower-pitched instruments and voices.
bass explained
The lowest standard male voice type, with a range typically from E2 to E4
basso continuo
A form of musical accompaniment in Baroque music where a bass line is played by a low instrument while a keyboard or lute fills in the harmonies from figured bass notation.
basso profondo
The lowest and deepest bass voice classification, capable of reaching notes below the bass staff
beat
The basic unit of time in music — the regular pulse that listeners tap their feet to.
bitonality
The simultaneous use of two different keys, creating a dissonant but structured harmonic texture.
blue note
A note played at a slightly lower pitch than standard, characteristic of blues and jazz.
blues scale
A six-note scale derived from the minor pentatonic with an added flattened fifth, creating the characteristic blue note
borrowed chord
A chord taken from the parallel key or mode and used in the current tonal context
cadence
A harmonic progression that concludes a phrase, section, or piece.
cadential
Relating to a cadence — the harmonic resolution at the end of a phrase.
cadential six-four
A second-inversion tonic chord used at cadences, functioning as a decoration of the dominant rather than a true tonic
changes
The chord progression of a jazz tune, used as the harmonic framework for improvisation.
chart
A written arrangement or lead sheet used by jazz and studio musicians.
chord
Three or more notes sounded simultaneously, forming the basis of harmony.
chord chart
A simplified musical score showing only chord symbols and song structure.
chord progression
A sequence of chords that forms the harmonic foundation of a piece of music.
chromatic
Moving by semitones; using notes outside the prevailing key.
chromatic scale
A scale consisting of all twelve semitones within an octave.
chromatic scale explained
A scale containing all twelve semitones within an octave, ascending and descending by half steps only
circle of fifths
A diagram arranging all twelve keys by ascending perfect fifths, showing the relationships between keys and their key signatures
clave
A two-bar rhythmic pattern that serves as the organising principle of Afro-Cuban and Latin music.
clave pattern
The foundational rhythmic pattern of Afro-Cuban and broader Latin music, consisting of a two-bar pattern of either 3-2 or 2-3 configuration that governs the entire musical structure.
clavé
The foundational rhythmic pattern in Afro-Cuban music, played on claves.
clef
A symbol at the beginning of a staff indicating the pitch of the notes.
cluster chord
A chord built from adjacent notes, creating a dense, dissonant mass of sound.
coloratura soprano
The highest and most agile type of soprano voice, specializing in rapid vocal ornamentation, trills, and high-register passages.
common time
The 4/4 time signature — the most frequently used meter in Western music.
common tone
A pitch that is shared between two consecutive chords, providing smooth voice-leading continuity
compas
The rhythmic cycle and time-keeping pattern that defines each flamenco form.
composition
The art of creating music, or a finished musical work.
compound time
A time signature in which each beat is subdivided into three equal parts rather than two
consonance
A combination of notes that sounds stable and pleasing.
consonant
A combination of notes that sounds stable, pleasant, and resolved.
contralto
The lowest female voice type, with a deep, rich quality.
contralto explained
The lowest female voice type, characterised by a deep, dark, rich tone and exceptional low range
contrapuntal
Relating to counterpoint — the combination of two or more independent melodic lines.
countermelody
A secondary melody played simultaneously with the main melody.
counterpoint
The art of combining two or more independent melodic lines simultaneously.
counterpoint explained
The art of combining two or more independent melodic lines into a harmonious whole
countertenor
A male voice type that sings in the alto or mezzo-soprano range, typically using a developed falsetto or head voice technique.
cross-rhythm
The simultaneous use of two or more conflicting rhythmic patterns that create a complex, interlocking texture.
cut time
A 2/2 time signature where the half note gets one beat, giving music a faster feel.
deceptive cadence
A harmonic progression where the dominant chord (V) resolves to an unexpected chord, typically vi, instead of the expected tonic.
deceptive cadence explained
A cadence in which the dominant chord resolves to an unexpected chord instead of the tonic, typically V–vi
diatonic
Using only the notes of the prevailing major or minor scale.
diatonic harmony
Harmony built exclusively from the notes of the prevailing major or minor scale.
diminished
A chord or interval that has been reduced by a semitone from its minor or perfect form.
diminished scale
A symmetrical scale alternating whole and half steps, dividing the octave into repeating patterns
diminished seventh chord
A four-note chord built entirely of minor third intervals, creating maximum harmonic tension.
discord
A harsh, unpleasant combination of sounds; extreme dissonance.
dissonance
A combination of notes that creates tension and a sense of instability.
dominant
The fifth degree of a scale, or the chord built on it — the strongest harmonic force pulling toward the tonic.
downbeat
The first beat of a bar — the strongest, most emphasised beat.
dynamics
The variation in loudness of musical sounds.
eighth note
A note lasting half a beat in common time, represented by a filled note head with a stem and one flag.
enharmonic
Two notes that sound the same but are written differently, such as F-sharp and G-flat.
enharmonic modulation
A modulation that exploits the enharmonic equivalence of a chord to reinterpret it in a new key
equal temperament
A tuning system that divides the octave into twelve exactly equal semitones
escape tone
A non-chord tone that is approached by step and left by leap in the opposite direction
fake book
An unofficial collection of jazz lead sheets providing melodies and chord symbols for hundreds of standards.
fermata types
Variations of the fermata symbol that indicate different durations and characters of pause
figured bass
A Baroque notation system where numbers below a bass line indicate the chords to be played.
figured bass notation
A Baroque-era shorthand system using numbers below a bass line to indicate the chords to be improvised above it, the foundation of continuo playing.
flat
An accidental that lowers a note by one semitone. Notated as a lowercase b.
frequency
The number of vibrations per second that determine a sound's pitch, measured in Hertz.
frequency response
The range of audio frequencies a device can reproduce, typically measured in Hertz.
grand staff
The combination of treble clef and bass clef staves connected by a brace, used for piano and other keyboard instruments to notate the full range of pitches.
graphic notation
A system of musical notation using visual symbols, shapes, colors, and spatial arrangements rather than traditional staff notation, allowing greater compositional freedom.
groove
A compelling rhythmic feel that makes music move and makes listeners want to dance.
guide tones
The third and seventh of a chord, which define its quality and voice-lead smoothly between chords.
half cadence
A cadence that ends on the dominant chord (V), creating a feeling of incompleteness or expectation rather than resolution.
half note
A note lasting two beats in common time, represented by an open note head with a stem.
half step
The smallest interval in standard Western music, equal to one semitone.
harmonic minor scale
A minor scale with a raised seventh degree, creating a leading tone and an augmented second between degrees 6 and 7
harmonic series
The naturally occurring series of overtones produced when any pitch sounds, forming the acoustical basis of harmony
harmony
The combination of simultaneously sounded notes to produce chords and chord progressions.
heldentenor
A powerful dramatic tenor voice capable of projecting over a large Romantic orchestra
hemiola
A rhythmic device that creates the effect of shifting between duple and triple meter, typically by grouping six beats as either three groups of two or two groups of three.
interval
The distance in pitch between two notes.
inversion
Rearranging the notes of a chord so a note other than the root is in the bass.
just intonation
A tuning system based on pure intervals derived from the harmonic series, using simple whole-number frequency ratios
key
The tonal center of a piece, defined by a scale and its tonic note.
key change
A shift from one key to another within a song or piece, also called modulation.
key signature
The set of sharps or flats at the beginning of a staff that indicates the key of the piece.
key signature explained
The group of sharps or flats placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the prevailing key of the music
lead sheet
A simplified musical score showing only the melody, lyrics, and chord symbols of a song.
ledger line
A short horizontal line extending the staff to notate pitches above or below its five lines.
lydian dominant
A scale combining the raised fourth of the Lydian mode with the flat seventh of the Mixolydian mode, widely used in jazz and film scoring.
major
A scale, key, or chord with a bright, stable, and generally positive quality.
maqam
A system of melodic modes in Arabic and Turkish music that defines not only a scale but characteristic melodic movements, ornamentation, and emotional associations.
measure
A segment of music contained between two bar lines, equivalent to a bar.
melodic minor scale
A minor scale that raises both the sixth and seventh degrees when ascending and reverts to natural minor when descending
melody
A sequence of single notes that form a musical idea; the tune.
meter
The pattern of strong and weak beats that creates the rhythmic framework of music.
metric modulation
A technique where a note value from the current tempo becomes the basis for a new tempo, creating a precise, mathematically related tempo change.
mezzo
Italian for half or medium, used in many musical terms.
mezzo-soprano
A female voice range between soprano and contralto.
mezzo-soprano explained
A female voice type sitting between soprano and contralto, with a warm, rich middle register
microtonal music
Music that uses intervals smaller than the standard Western semitone, exploring the pitch spaces between the notes of the twelve-tone equal temperament system.
minor
A scale, key, or chord with a darker, more melancholy quality than major.
modal interchange
The technique of borrowing chords from a parallel mode to enrich the harmonic palette
modulation
The process of changing from one key to another within a piece.
natural
An accidental that cancels a previous sharp or flat.
natural minor scale
The minor scale in its unaltered form, identical to the Aeolian mode, with semitones between degrees 2-3 and 5-6
neighbour note
A non-chord tone that steps away from a chord tone and returns to the same pitch
notation
The written system of symbols used to represent music on paper or screen.
note
A single musical sound of definite pitch and duration.
octatonic scale
A symmetrical eight-note scale alternating whole steps and half steps, producing a dark, ambiguous harmonic color.
octave
The interval between one note and the next note of the same name, spanning eight scale degrees.
ostinato
A short musical pattern repeated persistently throughout a passage.
overtone series
The naturally occurring sequence of frequencies (harmonics) that vibrate simultaneously above any fundamental pitch, forming the acoustic basis of all musical timbre and harmony.
parallel fifths
The movement of two voices in perfect fifths in the same direction, prohibited in traditional part writing
passing tone
A non-chord tone that fills the gap between two chord tones by stepwise motion
pedal point
A sustained or repeated note, usually in the bass, held while harmonies change above it.
pedal tone
A sustained or repeated note, usually in the bass, held through changing harmonies above
pelog
A seven-tone scale system used in Javanese and Balinese gamelan music with unequal intervals.
pentatonic
A five-note scale found in music traditions worldwide.
pentatonic major
A five-note scale omitting the fourth and seventh degrees of the major scale, creating an open, universal sound.
pentatonic minor
A five-note scale consisting of the first, flat third, fourth, fifth, and flat seventh degrees of the natural minor scale.
pentatonic scale explained
A five-note scale found in virtually every musical culture on earth
phrase
A musical sentence — a coherent group of notes that forms a complete musical thought.
pitch
The perceived highness or lowness of a sound, determined by its frequency.
pitch class
The set of all pitches sharing the same letter name regardless of octave, reduced to one of twelve chromatic values
pivot chord
A chord that belongs to two keys simultaneously, facilitating a smooth modulation
plagal cadence
A harmonic progression from the subdominant chord (IV) to the tonic chord (I), often called the "Amen cadence."
plagal cadence explained
A cadence moving from the subdominant chord to the tonic (IV–I), often called the Amen cadence
polyrhythm
Two or more conflicting rhythms played simultaneously.
polytonality
The simultaneous use of two or more musical keys, creating a complex, often dissonant harmonic texture characteristic of early 20th-century modernism.
power chord
A chord consisting of only the root and fifth (and often the octave), without a third, producing a neutral, heavy sound used extensively in rock and metal.
quartal harmony
A harmonic system built on stacked perfect fourths rather than the traditional thirds of tertian harmony
quarter note
A note lasting one beat in common time, represented by a filled note head with a stem.
quarter-tone music
Music using intervals of half a semitone (quarter tones), dividing the octave into 24 equal parts rather than the standard 12, creating a more finely graded pitch spectrum.
raga
A melodic framework in Indian classical music that prescribes a set of notes, their hierarchy, characteristic phrases, and associated mood.
real book
The most widely used collection of jazz lead sheets, originally an illegal bootleg from the Berklee College of Music.
register
A specific portion of an instrument's or voice's range, often with a distinct tonal quality.
resolution
The movement from a dissonant note or chord to a consonant one.
resonance
The amplification and enrichment of sound through sympathetic vibration.
rest
A symbol indicating a period of silence in music.
retardation
A non-chord tone that functions like a suspension but resolves upward by step instead of downward
rhythm
The pattern of sound durations and accents in music.
rhythm changes
A common jazz chord progression based on George Gershwin's I Got Rhythm.
sample rate
The number of times per second an analog audio signal is measured during digital recording.
scale
A sequence of notes arranged in ascending or descending order by pitch.
scale degree
The position of a note within a scale, numbered from the tonic (1) upward.
score
The written form of a musical composition showing all parts simultaneously.
second Viennese school
The collective term for Arnold Schoenberg and his students Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who developed atonality and the twelve-tone technique in early 20th-century Vienna.
secondary dominant
A dominant chord that temporarily tonicises a scale degree other than the tonic
semitone
The smallest interval in Western music, equal to one half step.
sequence
A musical pattern repeated at successively higher or lower pitches.
serialism
A method of composition that uses ordered sequences of pitch, rhythm, dynamics, or other musical elements as the basis for a work.
set theory
A method of analysing atonal music by treating pitches as members of mathematical sets
sharp
An accidental that raises a note by one semitone. Notated as a hash symbol.
shruti
The smallest perceptible interval of pitch in Indian classical music, forming the microtonal basis of the system.
sixteenth note
A note lasting one quarter of a beat in common time, with two flags or beams.
slendro
A five-tone scale system used in Javanese and Balinese gamelan music with roughly equal intervals.
solfège
A music education system that assigns syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) to the notes of a scale for sight-singing and ear training.
sonority
The quality or character of a musical sound, especially its richness and fullness.
soprano
The highest standard female voice type.
soprano explained
The highest standard female voice type, with a range typically from C4 to C6 or higher
spectralism
A compositional movement originating in 1970s France that derives musical structure from the analysis of sound's physical properties — its overtone spectrum, envelope, and acoustic behavior.
spinto
A lyric voice with the ability to push through heavier orchestral passages when dramatic intensity demands it
staff
A set of five horizontal lines on which musical notation is written.
stave
A set of five horizontal lines on which musical notation is written, also called a staff.
subdominant
The fourth degree of a scale and the chord built on it, creating a sense of departure from the tonic.
sus chord
A chord in which the third is replaced by either the fourth (sus4) or the second (sus2), creating a sense of unresolved tension
suspended chord
A chord where the third is replaced by a second or fourth, creating an unresolved, ambiguous quality.
suspension
A note held from one chord into the next, creating a brief dissonance before resolving.
syncopation
Emphasis on normally weak beats, creating rhythmic surprise.
tablature
A notation system showing finger positions rather than musical pitches, commonly used for guitar.
tala
A rhythmic cycle in Indian classical music that provides the temporal framework for composition and improvisation.
temperament
A tuning system that adjusts the natural intervals between notes to allow playing in multiple keys.
tempo
The speed at which a piece of music is played.
tenor
The highest standard male voice type.
tenor explained
The highest standard male voice type, with a range typically from C3 to C5
tessitura
The range of pitches in which a vocal or instrumental part lies most consistently, as distinct from its absolute range.
tessitura explained
The range within which a vocal or instrumental part predominantly lies, as opposed to its total range
texture
The way melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic materials are combined in a composition.
tie
A curved line connecting two notes of the same pitch, combining their durations.
timbre
The unique quality or color of a sound that distinguishes one instrument from another.
time
The rhythmic organisation of music, including tempo, meter, and the placement of sounds in duration.
time signature
A notation indicating how many beats are in each measure and which note value gets one beat.
tone
An interval of two semitones, also called a whole step.
tone cluster
A chord built from adjacent notes sounded simultaneously, creating a dense, dissonant mass of sound
tone color melody
A compositional technique (Klangfarbenmelodie) where a melody is distributed across different instruments, with the changing timbres becoming the primary musical interest.
tone row
An ordered sequence of all twelve chromatic pitches, used as the structural basis for twelve-tone and serial compositions.
tonicisation
The brief treatment of a non-tonic chord as a temporary tonic through the use of its own dominant or leading tone
transposition
The process of shifting all notes of a musical passage up or down by a constant interval
treble
The higher range of musical pitch, or the treble clef that notates it.
tritone
An interval of three whole tones — the most dissonant interval in Western music.
tritone substitution
A jazz harmonic technique in which a dominant seventh chord is replaced by another dominant seventh chord a tritone away
turnaround
A short chord progression at the end of a section that leads back to the beginning.
twelve-tone
A method of composition using all twelve chromatic notes in a fixed order, avoiding tonal hierarchy.
unison
Two or more voices or instruments performing the same note or melody simultaneously.
upbeat
The last beat of a bar, which leads into the downbeat of the next bar; also called an anacrusis.
voice leading
The art of moving individual voices smoothly from one chord to the next.
voice type classification
The system of categorising singing voices by range, weight, colour, and tessitura
voicing
The specific arrangement of notes within a chord, including their octave placement and spacing.
voicings
The specific arrangement and spacing of notes within a chord across the available range.
volume
The loudness or softness of a musical sound, controlled through dynamics.
whole note
A note lasting four beats in common time, represented by an open note head without a stem.
whole step
An interval of two semitones, equivalent to a tone.
whole tone scale
A six-note scale built entirely of whole steps, creating a dreamlike, floating quality.
whole tone scale explained
A symmetrical scale built entirely from whole steps, dividing the octave into six equal parts